Vertebrae: Typical Features

All vertebrae have certain features in common. Learning these features and then noting regional differences makes the study of vertebrae far less difficult. A midthoracic vertebra is generally chosen as exhibiting features common to most other vertebrae (Figure 2-2, A).

Figure 2-2 A, Superior view of a typical vertebra. B, Left lateral view of two articulated vertebrae.

The body is a spool-shaped mass of bone that provides support. All vertebrae (except C1) have a body. A vertebral arch is fastened to the posterior aspect of the body. The arch has two components: a pedicle, or short bony root, which fastens the arch to the body; and a flattened lamina, which forms the roof of the arch and body. The vertebral arch and body form the vertebral foramen, which encloses and protects the delicate spinal cord within. The arches in an articulated vertebral column form the vertebral canal, which houses the entire spinal cord.

Bilateral superior and inferior articulating processes are situated between the pedicle and lamina. They are bilateral articulating facets that are covered with hyaline cartilage and allow the vertebra above to articulate with the vertebra below (Figure 2-2, B).

Bilateral superior and inferior vertebral notches are found on the superior and inferior aspects of the pedicles. In the articulated spinal column the superior and inferior notches form the intervertebral foramina, which transmit the spinal nerves.

Attached to the vertebral arch are three processes that provide attachment for muscles of the back and therefore act as levers in response to muscle contractions. A single spinous process extends posteriorly and inferiorly from the top of the vertebral arch. Arising laterally from the arch are two transverse processes.

Cervical Vertebrae

Of the seven cervical vertebrae, C3 to C6 are considered typical of the cervical region in that they exhibit all of the features of vertebrae in general. They also display certain features that distinguish them as cervical vertebrae.

Typical Features

In addition to the general features, cervical vertebrae exhibit (1) a transverse foramen, a hole through the transverse processes to transmit the vertebral artery and vein; (2) a bifid spinous process; and (3) a transverse process, which ends laterally as an anterior and a posterior tubercle for attachment of cervical muscles (Figure 2-3, C).

Figure 2-3 Superior view of cervical vertebrae. A, Atlas vertebra (C1). B, Axis vertebra (C2). C, Typical vertebra (C3 to C6). D, Atypical vertebra (C7).

Thoracic Vertebrae

The 12 thoracic vertebrae (see Figure 2-2) exhibit a number of features that distinguish them from other vertebrae: (1) the spinous process is long and slender; (2) the body has an articulating facet for the head of a rib; (3) the transverse process has an articulating facet for the tubercle of a rib; and (4) the body is heart-shaped.

Lumbar Vertebrae

Three features distinguish the five lumbar vertebrae (Figure 2-4): (1) they are relatively massive, with bean-shaped bodies; (2) they have no facets for ribs nor do the transverse processes possess transverse foramina, as in the cervical vertebrae; and (3) the spinous processes are not bifid nor slender but square-shaped.

Figure 2-4 Superior view of lumbar vertebra.

The Sacrum

The five elements of the sacrum (Figure 2-5) are fused to form a solid triangular mass. The spinous processes are represented posteriorly by a median crest. A lateral mass representing fused transverse processes terminates laterally as two ear-shaped articular surfaces for the right and left os coxae. Superiorly, the sacral promontory projects anteriorly, and the sacral canal continues the vertebral canal inferiorly from the lumbar region. Leaving the sacral canal on either side are four anterior and posterior pelvic foramina, which transmit sacral anterior and posterior rami.

Figure 2-5 Sacrum. A, Anterior view. B, Posterior view.

The Coccyx

The coccyx is a triangular mass formed by the fusion of four small segments. In humans it represents the vestigial tail.

Joints Between Bodies

A symphysis type of joint is found between vertebral bodies (Figure 2-7). Hyaline cartilage lines the bony surfaces of the apposing bodies. Interposed is a disc consisting of concentric layers of fibrocartilaginous fibers (anulus fibrosis) surrounding a nucleus of fibrogelatinous material (pulpal nucleus), which is a remnant of the early notochord. The discs act as shock absorbers and in younger individuals (aged 20 years or younger) are quite strong. Anterior and posterior longitudinal ligaments run along the anterior and posterior surfaces of the vertebral bodies from the base of the skull to the sacrum, binding the components of the vertebral column together.

Figure 2-7 A, Coronal section through adjacent vertebral bodies to show intervertebral disc. B, Compressed intervertebral disc with resultant narrowing of intervertebral foramen. C, Herniated nucleus pulposus of intervertebral disc compressing nerve roots.

Joints Between Articular Facets

Bilateral synovial joints are found between the inferior articulating facets and the superior facets of the vertebra below. The angulations of the articulating facets determine the types of movements in the various segments of the spinal column. The cervical and lumbar vertebrae allow a range of flexion (bending forward) and late/>