Benefits
2. Fluoride prevents tooth decay?
1. What is fluoride?
Answer.
Fluoride is a naturally occurring mineral that can help prevent tooth decay.
Fact.
The element fluorine is abundant in the earth’s crust as a naturally occurring fluoride compound found in rocks and soil.1 As ground water moves through the earth, it passes over rock formations and dissolves the fluoride minerals that are present, releasing fluoride ions that are naturally occurring fluoride in the rocks. This increases the fluoride content of the water. The concentration of fluoride in ground water (e.g., wells, springs) varies according to such factors as the depth at which the water is found and the quantity of fluoride-bearing minerals in the area.
Fluoride is present at varied concentrations in all water sources including rainwater and the oceans. For example, the oceans’ fluoride levels range from 1.2 to 1.4 mg/L.2 In the United States, the natural level of fluoride in ground water varies from very low levels to over 4 mg/L.3 In comparison, the fluoride concentrations in surface water sources such as lakes and rivers is very low. For example, the water analysis completed by the city of Chicago for the year 2016 lists the range for Lake Michigan’s natural fluoride level as 0.11 to 0.13 mg/L.4
2. How does fluoride help prevent tooth decay?
Answer.
Tooth decay begins when the outer layer of a tooth loses some of its minerals due to acid produced by bacteria in dental plaque breaking down the sugars that we eat. Fluoride protects teeth by helping to prevent the loss of these minerals and by restoring them with a fluoride-containing mineral that is more resistant to acid attacks. In other words, fluoride protects teeth by reducing demineralization and enhancing remineralization. Fluoride also works to hinder bacterial activity necessary for the formation of tooth decay.
Fact.
One of fluoride’s main mechanism of action is its ability to prevent or delay the loss of minerals from teeth.5,6 Cavities start to form when minerals are lost due to acid attacks from bacteria in dental plaque (a soft, sticky film that is constantly forming on teeth). Bacteria grow rapidly by feeding on the sugars and refined carbohydrates that we consume. This process of losing minerals is called demineralization.
Fluoride’s second mechanism of action is called remineralization, which is the reversal of this demineralization process.6,7 Teeth gain back the minerals lost during acid attacks through remineralization but with an important difference. Some of the hydroxyapatatite crystal lost is replaced with fluorapatite. This fluoride-rich replacement mineral is even more resistant to acid attacks than the original tooth surface.6
Studies indicate fluoride has a third mechanism of action that hinders the ability of bacteria to metabolize carbohydrates and produce acids.5 It can also hinder the ability of the bacteria to stick to the tooth surface.8
Fluoride and minerals, including calcium and phosphate, are present in saliva6,8 and are stored in dental plaque. To halt the formation of tooth decay or rebuild tooth surfaces, fluoride must be constantly present in low concentrations in saliva and plaque.6 Frequent exposure to small amounts of fluoride, such as that which occurs when drinking fluoridated water, helps to maintain the reservoir of available fluoride in saliva and plaque to resist demineralization and enhance remineralization.6,9 In other words, drinking fluoridated water provides the right amount of fluoride at the right place at the right time. Fluoride in water and water-based beverages is consumed many times during the day, providing frequent contact with tooth structures and making fluoride available to fluoride reservoirs in the mouth. This helps explain why fluoride at the low levels found in fluoridated water helps to prevent tooth decay.6
Additionally, studies have concluded that fluoride ingested during tooth formation becomes incorporated into the tooth structure making the teeth more resistant to acid attacks and demineralization.10-14 In particular, this pre-eruptive exposure to fluoride, before the teeth come into the mouth during childhood, can play a significant role in preventing tooth decay in the pits and fissures of the chewing surfaces, particularly of molars.6,15,16 Sources of fluorides in the United States that provide this pre-eruptive effect include fluoridated water and dietary fluoride supplements as well as fluoride present in foods and beverages. Additionally, young children often swallow substantial percentages of the fluoride toothpaste and other fluoride-containing dental products which adds to their intake of fluoride. Originally, it was believed that fluoride’s action was exclusively pre-eruptive, meaning the benefit occurred only during tooth formation, but by the mid-1950s there was growing evidence of the importance of fluoride’s important roles in demineralization and remineralization.11
Pre-eruptive effects are sometimes called systemic, while post-eruptive effects are called topical. These terms refer to different things. Pre- and post-eruptive refer to the timing of fluoride benefits while systemic and topical refer to the mode of administration or source of fluoride. Defining the effects of fluoride from a specific source as solely systemic or topical is not entirely accurate. For example, water fluoridation provides both a systemic (during tooth development) and topical effect (at the time of ingestion strengthening the outside of the tooth).
Today it is understood that the maximum reduction in tooth decay occurs when both effects are combined, that is when fluoride has been incorporated into the tooth during formation and when it is available at the tooth surface during demineralization and remineralization. Water fluoridation works in both ways to prevent tooth decay.8,11,13,15,16
Today it is understood that the maximum reduction in tooth decay occurs when both effects are combined, that is when fluoride has been incorporated into the tooth during formation and when it is available at the tooth surface during demineralization and remineralization. Water fluoridation works in both ways to prevent tooth decay.
3. What is water fluoridation?
Answer.
Water fluoridation is the controlled adjustment of the natural fluoride concentration in community water supplies to the concentration recommended for optimal dental health. Fluoridation helps prevent tooth decay in children and adults.
Fact.
In 2015, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), using the best available science, established the recommended concentration for fluoride in the water in the United States at 0.7 mg/L.17 This level effectively reduces tooth decay while minimizing dental fluorosis.
The level of fluoride in water is measured in milligrams per liter (mg/L) or parts per million (ppm). When referring to water, a concentration in milligrams per liter is identical to parts per million and the notations can be used interchangeably. Thus, 0.7 mg/L of fluoride in water is identical to 0.7 ppm. The preferred notation is milligrams per liter.
• 1 inch in approximately 23 miles
• 1 minute in approximately 1000 days
• 1 cent in approximately $14,000.00
• 1 seat in more than 34 Wrigley Field baseball parks (seating capacity 41,268)
The following terms and definitions are used in this publication:
• Community water fluoridation is the controlled adjustment of the natural fluoride concentration in water up to 0.7 mg/L, the level recommended for optimal dental health. Other terms used interchangeably are water fluoridation, fluoridation and optimally fluoridated water. Optimal levels of fluoride can be present in the water naturally or by adjusted means.
• Sub-optimally fluoridated water is water that naturally contains less than the optimal level (below 0.7 mg/L) of fluoride. Other terms used are nonfluoridated water and fluoride-deficient water.
Additional information on this topic can be found in this Section, Question 6.
The level of fluoride in water is measured in milligrams per liter (mg/L) or parts per million (ppm). When referring to water, a concentration in milligrams per liter is identical to parts per million and the notations can be used interchangeably. Thus, 0.7 mg/L of fluoride in water is identical to 0.7 ppm. The preferred notation is milligrams per liter.
4. How much fluoride is in your water?
Answer.
If your water comes from a public/community water supply, the options to learn the fluoride level of the water include contacting the local water supplier or the local/county/state health department, reviewing the Consumer Confidence Report (CCR) issued by your local water supplier, and using the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s internet based “My Water’s Fluoride.” If your water source is a private well, it will need to be tested and the results obtained from a certified laboratory.
Fact.
The fluoride content of the local public or community water system can be obtained by contacting the local water supplier or the local/county/state health department. The name of your water system might not be the same as the name of your community.
In 1999, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) began requiring water suppliers to make annual drinking water quality reports accessible to their customers. Available prior to July 1 each year for the preceding calendar year, these Consumer Confidence Reports (CCRs), or Water Quality Reports,18 can be mailed to customers, placed in the local newspaper or made available through the internet. To obtain a copy of the report, contact the local water supplier. If the name of the community water system is unknown, contact the local health department.
There are two sites on the internet that supply information on water quality of community water systems. The online source for Water Quality Reports or CCRs is the EPA website19 at: https://ofmpub.epa.gov/apex/safewater/f?p=136:102. Additionally, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s (CDC) fluoridation website, “My Water’s Fluoride,”20 is available at: https://nccd.cdc.gov/DOH_MWF/Default/Default.aspx. The website allows consumers in currently participating states to learn the fluoridation status of their water system. It also provides information on the number of people served by the water system, the water source, and if the water system is naturally fluoridated or adjusts the fluoride level in the water supply.20
The EPA does not have the authority to regulate private drinking water wells. However, the EPA recommends that private well water be tested once a year.21 For the most accurate results, a state certified laboratory that conducts drinking water tests should be used for fluoride testing. For a list of state certified laboratories, contact the local, county or state water/health department.
The EPA does not specifically recommend testing private wells for the level of fluoride. However, if a household with a private well has children under 16 years of age, their health professionals will need to know the fluoride level of the well water prior to consideration of prescription of dietary fluoride supplements8 or to counsel patients about alternative water sources to reduce the risk of fluorosis if the natural fluoride levels are above 2 mg/L.
Dietary fluoride supplements (tablets, drops or lozenges) are available only by prescription and are intended for use by children ages six months to 16 years living in nonfluoridated areas and at high risk of developing tooth decay. Your dentist or physician can prescribe the correct dosage.8
Additional information on this topic can be found in this Section, Question 12 and in the Safety Section, Questions 21, 27, 28 and 29.
5. What additives are used to fluoridate water supplies in the United States?
Answer.
Sodium fluoride, sodium fluorosilicate and fluorosilicic acid are the three additives approved for use in community water fluoridation in the United States. Sodium fluorosilicate and fluorosilicic acid are sometimes referred to as silicofluoride additives.
Fact.
The three basic additives used to fluoridate water in the United States are: 1) sodium fluoride which is a white, odorless material available either as a powder or crystals; 2) sodium fluorosilicate which is a white or yellow-white, odorless crystalline material and 3) fluorosilicic acid which is a white to strawcolored liquid.22
Water fluoridation began in the U.S. in 1945 with the use of sodium fluoride; the use of silicofluorides began in 1946 and by 1951, they were the most commonly used additives.23 First used in the late 1940s, fluorosilicic acid is currently the most commonly used additive to fluoridate communities in the United States.24 To ensure the public’s safety, regardless of where the additives are manufactured, they should meet safety standards for water treatment in the U.S.22 Specifically, additives used in water fluoridation should meet standards of the American Water Works Association (AWWA). With respect to NSF/ANSI certification, fluoride additives are considered no different than other water additives. Fluoride additives, like any other water additive should also meet NSF/ANSI Standards.22 In the United States, the authority to regulate products for use in drinking water, including additives used to fluoridate community water systems, rests with individual states. In 2013, AWWA reported that 47 states had adopted the NSF/ANSI Standard 60 which specifies the product quality with validation supplied by independent certification entities.22
To ensure the public’s safety, regardless of where the additives are manufactured, they should meet safety standards for water treatment in the U.S.
Additional information on the topic of fluoride additives can be found in the Fluoridation Practice section of this publication and at the CDC’s fluoridation website, “Water Operators and Engineers” at https://www.cdc.gov/fluoridation/engineering/index.htm.
6. Is there a difference in the effectiveness between naturally occurring fluoridated water (at optimal fluoride levels) and water that has fluoride added to reach the optimal level?
Answer.
No. The dental benefits of optimally fluoridated water occur regardless of the fluoride’s source.
Fact.
Fluoride is present in water as “ions” or electricallycharged atoms.25 These ions are the same whether acquired by water as it seeps through rocks and sand or added to the water supply under carefully controlled conditions.
It has been observed that the major features of human fluoride metabolism are not affected by the three fluoride additives used in community water fluoridation nor are they affected by whether the fluoride is present naturally or added to drinking water.26 In more simple terms, there is no difference chemically between natural and adjusted fluoridation.
When fluoride is added under controlled conditions to fluoride-deficient water, the dental benefits are the same as those obtained from naturally fluoridated water. Fluoridation is merely an increase of the level of the naturally occurring fluoride present in all drinking water sources to the level recommended for optimal dental health.
Fluoridation is merely an increase of the level of the naturally occurring fluoride present in all drinking water sources to the level recommended for optimal dental health.
For example, a fluoridation study conducted in the Ontario, Canada, communities of Brantford (optimally fluoridated by adjustment), Stratford (optimally fluoridated naturally) and Sarnia (fluoride-deficient), revealed much lower decay rates in both Brantford and Stratford as compared to nonfluoridated Sarnia. There was no observable difference in the decay-reducing effect between the naturally occurring fluoride and adjusted fluoride concentration water supplies, proving that dental benefits were similar regardless of the source of fluoride.27
Some individuals use the term “artificial fluoridation” to imply that the process of water fluoridation is unnatural and that it delivers a foreign substance into a water supply when, in fact, all water sources contain some fluoride. The fluoride ion released in water is the same regardless of the source25 and is metabolized (processed) by the body in the same way no matter what the source.26 Community water fluoridation is a natural way to improve oral health.
7. Is water fluoridation effective in helping to prevent tooth decay?
Answer.
Yes. According to the best available scientific evidence, community water fluoridation is an effective public health measure for preventing, and in some cases, reversing tooth decay, in children, adolescents and adults. With hundreds of studies published in peer-reviewed, scientific journals, fluoridation is one of the most studied public health measures in history and it continues to be studied today.
Fact.
The effectiveness of fluoride in drinking water to prevent tooth decay has been documented in the scientific literature for over 70 years. Before the first community fluoridation program began in 1945, epidemiologic data from the 1930s and 1940s were collected and analyzed.28-30 What began as research to learn what caused “Colorado Brown Stain” (dental fluorosis) led to the discovery of strikingly low tooth decay rates associated with fluoride in drinking water at approximately 1 ppm (mg/L). Figure 2 shows the results of early research by Dr. H. Trendley Dean noting the relationship between children’s experience with tooth decay (solid line), dental fluorosis (dotted line) and the fluoride concentration in drinking water.28,29
Additional information on this topic can be found in the Introduction Section.
Figure 2. Dean’s Graph
Relationships of tooth decay experience (solid line), dental fluorosis index (dashed line) and the fluoride concentration of drinking water.28,29
On November 9, 2017, the Australian Government’s National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) released the NHMRC Public Statement 2017 — Water Fluoridation and Human Health in Australia31 recommending community water fluoridation as a safe, effective and ethical way to help reduce tooth decay. Based on a comprehensive review of the evidence, published in 2016, and the translation of that evidence into the NHMRC Information Paper — Water Fluoridation: Dental and Other Human Health Outcomes,32 published in 2017, the Public Statement notes that the NHMRC found that water fluoridation reduces tooth decay by 26% to 44% in children and adolescents, and by 27% in adults. Additionally, it notes that recent Australian research found that access to fluoridated water from an early age is associated with less tooth decay in adults. The Statement notes that NHMRC supports Australian states and territories fluoridating their drinking water supplies within the range of 0.6 to 1.1 mg/L.31
Established by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services in 1996, the Community Preventive Services Task Force develops and disseminates guidance on which community-based health promotion and disease prevention intervention approaches work, and which do not work, based on available scientific evidence. The Task Force issues findings based on systematic reviews of effectiveness and economic evidence. The Guide to Community Preventive Services (“The Community Guide”) is a collection of evidence-based findings of the Community Preventive Services Task Force and is designed to assist decision makers in selecting interventions to improve health and prevent disease.33
The Community Guide reviews are designed to answer three questions:
1. What has worked for others and how well?
2. What might this intervention approach cost, and what am I likely to achieve through my investment?
3. What are the evidence gaps?33
In a 2013 update of the evidence, the Community Preventive Services Task Force continued to recommend community water fluoridation to reduce tooth decay, noting that cavities decreased when fluoridation was implemented and that cavities increased when fluoridation was stopped, as compared to communities that continued fluoridation.33
A summary of systematic reviews by the Oral Health Services Research Centre at the University Dental School in Cork, Ireland, published in 2009, reviewed results from three systematic reviews, all of which were published between 2000 and 2007. The summary of results concluded that the best available scientific evidence demonstrated that water fluoridation was an effective community-based method to prevent tooth decay, especially for the disadvantaged who bear the greatest burden of disease.35
A meta-analysis (a type of systematic review that seeks to determine a statistical estimate of an overall benefit based on the results of the collection of studies included in the review), which was published in 2007 in the Journal of Dental Research, demonstrated the effectiveness of water fluoridation for preventing tooth decay in adults. Twenty studies representing over 13,500 participants were included in the analysis. Of the 20 studies, nine examined the effectiveness of water fluoridation. The review of these studies found that fluoridation prevents approximately 27% of tooth decay in adults.36
Besides systematic reviews, significant additional studies conducted since the initiation of water fluoridation in 1945, also have demonstrated the effectiveness of water fluoridation in reducing the occurrence of tooth decay.
• In Grand Rapids, Michigan, the first city in the world to fluoridate its water supply, a 15-year landmark study showed that children who consumed fluoridated water from birth had 50-63% less tooth decay than children who had been examined during the original baseline survey completed in nonfluoridated Muskegon, Michigan.37
• In 1985, the National Preventive Dentistry Demonstration Program38 analyzed various types and combinations of school-based preventive dental services to determine the cost and effectiveness of these types of prevention programs. Ten sites from across the nation were selected. Five of the sites had fluoridated water and five did not. Over 20,000 second and fifth graders participated in the study over a period of four years. Students were examined and assigned by site to one or a combination of the following groups:
biweekly in class brushing and flossing plus a home supply of fluoride toothpaste and dental health lessons (ten per year);
in-class daily fluoride tablets (in nonfluoridated areas);
in-school weekly fluoride mouthrinsing;
in-school professionally applied topical fluoride;
in-school professionally applied dental sealants, and
a control.38
After four years, approximately 50% of the original students were examined again. The study affirmed the value and effectiveness of community water fluoridation. At the sites where the community water was fluoridated, students had substantially fewer cavities, as compared to those sites without fluoridated water where the same preventive measures were implemented. In addition, while sealants were determined to be an effective prevention method, the cost of a sealant program was substantially more than the cost of fluoridating the community water, confirming fluoridation as the most cost-effective preventive option.38
• In another review of studies conducted from 1976 through 1987 and published in 1989,39 data for different age groups were separated into categories by the types of teeth present in the mouth. The results demonstrated a 30-60% reduction in tooth decay in primary teeth, a 20-40% reduction in the mixed dentition (having both baby and adult teeth) and a 15%-35% reduction in the permanent dentition (adults and seniors) for those living in fluoridated communities.39
• In the United States, an epidemiological survey of nearly 40,000 schoolchildren was completed in 1987.40 Nearly 50% of the children aged 5 to 17 years who participated in the study were decay free in their permanent teeth, which was a major change from a similar survey conducted in 1980 in which approximately 37% were decay free. This dramatic decline in decay rates was attributed primarily to the widespread use of fluoride in community water supplies, toothpastes, dietary fluoride supplements and mouthrinses. Although decay rates had declined overall, data also revealed that the decay rate was 25% lower in children with continuous residence in fluoridated communities when the data were adjusted to control for exposure to dietary fluoride supplements and topical fluoride treatments.40
• In 1993, the results of 113 studies in 23 countries (over half of the studies were from the U.S.) were compiled and analyzed.41 This review provided effectiveness data for 66 studies of primary teeth and 86 studies of permanent teeth. The analysis of the studies demonstrated a 40-49% decay reduction for primary (baby) teeth and a 50-59% decay reduction for permanent (adult) teeth for those living in fluoridated communities.41
• A comprehensive analysis of the first 50 years of community water fluoridation in the United States concluded that “Community water fluoridation is one of the most successful public health disease prevention programs ever initiated.”42 While noting that the difference in tooth decay between optimally fluoridated communities and fluoride-deficient communities was smaller than in the early days of fluoridation, largely due to additional sources of fluoride, the difference was still significant and the benefits for adults should be emphasized. The report ended by noting that water fluoridation is a near-ideal public health measure whose benefits can transcend racial, ethnic, socioeconomic and regional differences.42
The systematic reviews and studies noted above provide science-based evidence that, for more than 70 years, fluoridation has been effective in helping to prevent tooth decay.
8. With other sources of fluoride now available, is water fluoridation still an effective method for preventing tooth decay?
Answer.
Yes. Even in an era with widespread availability of fluoride from other sources, studies show that community water fluoridation prevents at least 25% of tooth decay in children and adults throughout the life span.
Fact.
During the 1940s, studies demonstrated that children in communities with optimally fluoridated drinking water had reductions in tooth decay rates of approximately 40% to 60% as compared to those living in nonfluoridated communities.37,44 At that time, drinking water was the only source of fluoride other than fluoride that occurred naturally in foods.
Increase in the Number of Sources of Fluoride
Fluoride is available today from a number of sources including water, beverages, food, dental products (toothpaste, rinses, professionally applied fluoride foams, gels and varnish and dietary supplements.)17 As a result of the widespread availability of these various sources of fluoride, the difference between decay rates in fluoridated areas and nonfluoridated areas is somewhat less than several decades ago, yet it is still significant.17 Studies show that community water fluoridation prevents at least 25% of tooth decay in children and adults throughout the life span.36,45 The benefits of fluoridation are extended to everyone in a community where they live, work, attend school or play — and it does not require a change of behavior or access to dental care.
The benefits of fluoridation are extended to everyone in a community where they live, work, attend school or play — and it does not require a change of behavior or access to dental care.
The Diffusion or Halo Effect
The diffusion or “halo” effect occurs because foods and beverages processed in optimally fluoridated cities generally contain higher levels of fluoride than those processed in nonfluoridated communities. This exposure to fluoride in nonfluoridated areas through the diffusion effect lessens the differences in the amount of tooth decay between communities.39,42,43 The best available national data demonstrate that the failure to account for the diffusion effect results in an underestimation of the total benefit of water fluoridation especially in areas where large quantities of fluoridated beverage and food products are brought into nonfluoridated communities.46
Exposure to Fluoridation over the Life Span
Another factor in the difference between decay rates in fluoridated areas and nonfluoridated areas is the high geographic mobility of our society. On a day-to-day basis, many individuals may reside in a nonfluoridated community but spend a significant part of their day in a fluoridated community at work, school or daycare. Additionally, over their lifetime, people tend to move and reside in a number of communities, some with optimally fluoridated water and some without. This mobility makes it increasingly difficult to study large numbers of people who have spent their entire lives in one (fluoridated or nonfluoridated) community.39 It also means that many individuals receive the benefit of fluoridation for at least some part of their lives. For children who have resided in fluoridated communities their entire lives, studies demonstrated they had less tooth decay than children who never lived in fluoridated communities.40
Despite fluoride from a number of other sources, the “halo effect” and the mobility of today’s society, studies show that community water fluoridation prevents at least 25% of tooth decay in children and adults throughout the life span.36,45
9. What happens if water fluoridation is discontinued?
Answer.
Tooth decay can be expected to increase if water fluoridation in a community is discontinued even if topical products such as fluoride toothpaste and fluoride mouthrinses are widely used.
Fact.
In 2013, using an updated systematic review, the Community Preventive Services Task Force, established by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, continued to recommend community water fluoridation to reduce tooth decay, noting that cavities decreased when fluoridation was implemented and that cavities increased when fluoridation was stopped, as compared to communities that continued fluoridation.34 This confirmed the Task Force’s earlier systematic review published in 200245 which also noted an increase in tooth decay when fluoridation was halted (a median 17.9% increase in tooth decay during 6 to 10 years of follow-up).
Historical Studies Noting an Increase in Tooth Decay after Discontinuation of Fluoridation
Antigo, Wisconsin, began water fluoridation in June 1949 and ceased adding fluoride to its water in November 1960. After five and one-half years without optimal levels of fluoride, second grade children had a 200% increase in tooth decay experience, fourth graders a 70% increase and sixth graders a 91% increase in decay experience compared with the levels of those of the same ages in 1960. Residents of Antigo re-instituted water fluoridation in October 1965 on the basis of the severe deterioration of their children’s oral health.47
A study that reported the relationship between fluoridated water and tooth decay prevalence focused on the city of Galesburg, Illinois, a community whose public water supply contained naturally occurring fluoride at 2.2 mg/L. In 1959, Galesburg switched its community water source to the Mississippi River. This alternative water source provided the citizens of Galesburg a sub-optimal level of fluoride at approximately 0.1 mg/L. In the period of time between a baseline survey conducted in 1958 and a new survey conducted in 1961, data revealed a 10% decrease in the percentage of decay free 14-year-olds (oldest group observed), and a 38% increase in mean tooth decay experience. Two years later, in 1961, the water was fluoridated at the recommended level of 1.0 mg/L.48
Because of a government decision in 1979, fluoridation in the northern Scotland town of Wick was discontinued after eight years. The water was returned to its sub-optimal, naturally occurring fluoride level of 0.02 mg/L. Data collected to monitor the oral health of Wick children clearly demonstrated a negative health effect from the discontinuation of water fluoridation. Five years after the cessation of water fluoridation, decay in primary (baby teeth) had increased 27%. This increase in decay occurred during a period when there had been a reported overall reduction in decay nationally and when fluoride toothpaste had been widely adopted. These data suggest that decay levels in children can be expected to rise where water fluoridation is interrupted or terminated, even when topical fluoride products are widely used.49
In a similar evaluation, the prevalence of tooth decay in 5- and 10-year-old children in Stranraer, Scotland, increased after the discontinuation of water fluoridation. This increase in tooth decay was estimated to result in a 115% increase in the mean cost of restorative dental treatment for decay. These data support the important role water fluoridation plays in the reduction of tooth decay.50
Historical Studies and Factors Noting No Increase In Tooth Decay after Discontinuation of Fluoridation
There have been several studies from outside the United States that have not reported an increase in tooth decay following the discontinuation of fluoridation. In all of these, the discontinuation of fluoridation coincided with the implementation of other measures to prevent tooth decay.
In La Salud, Cuba, a study on tooth decay in children indicated that the rate of tooth decay did not increase after fluoridation was stopped in 1990. However, at the time fluoridation was discontinued a new preventive fluoride program was initiated where all children received fluoride mouthrinses on a regular basis and children two to five years of age received fluoride varnish once or twice a year.51
In Finland, a longitudinal study in Kuopio (fluoridated from 1959 to 1992) and Jyväskylä (with low levels of natural fluoride) showed little difference in decay rates between the two communities that are extremely similar in terms of ethnic background and social structure.52 This was attributed to a number of factors. The dental programs exposed the Finnish children to intense topical fluoride regimes and dental sealant programs. Virtually all children and adolescents used the government-sponsored, comprehensive, free dental care. As a result, the effect of water fluoridation appeared minimal. Because of this unique set of factors, it was concluded that these results could not be replicated in countries with less intensive preventive dental care programs.52
No significant decrease in tooth decay was seen after fluoridation was discontinued in 1990 in Chemniz and Plauen, located in what was formerly East Germany.53 The intervening factors in these communities include improvements in attitudes toward oral health behaviors, and broader availability and increased use of other preventive measures including fluoridated salt, fluoride toothpaste and dental sealants.53
A similar situation was reported from the Netherlands. A study was conducted of 15-year-old children in Tiel (fluoridated 1953 to 1973) and Culemborg (nonfluoridated) comparing tooth decay rates from a baseline in 1968 through 1988. The lower tooth decay rate in Tiel after the cessation of fluoridation was attributed in part to the initiation of a dental health education program, free dietary fluoride supplements and a greater use of professionally applied topical fluorides.54
In the preceding examples, communities that discontinued fluoridation either found higher tooth decay rates in their children or a lack of an increase that could be attributed to the availability and use of free dental services for all children or the implementation of wide-spread decay prevention programs that require significant professional and administrative support and are less cost-effective than fluoridation.
10. Is tooth decay still a serious problem in the United States?
Answer.
Yes. Tooth decay is an infectious disease that continues to be a significant oral health problem.
Fact.
Good oral health is often taken for granted by many people in the U.S. Yet, while largely preventable, tooth decay, cavities or dental caries (a term used by health professionals) remains a common, debilitating, chronic condition for many children and adults.
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